Objectives of Guidance

Meaning of Guidance

            The term 'guidance' is derived from word 'guide' that means to show the way to a needy person. A guide one who has deep knowledge so that seeker can be enlightened. The modern urban life with technology advancements, 24X7 media and complexities of social life had introduced new psycho-social challenges which young and adults found it difficult to cope with which led to the origin of concept of ‘guidance’. Guidance is the assistance provided a qualified and trained person to an individual to help him to manage his own life activities and deal with challenges. In the educational field, guidance means assisting the students to select courses appropriate to their temperament and interests and achieve excellence in his or her chosen field.

Definitions of Guidance

            According to Crow and Crow, "Guidance is the assistance made available by competent counselors to an individual of any age to help him direct his own life, develop his own point of view, make his own decisions, carry his own burdens".

            According to Jones, "Guidance involves personal help given by someone; it is designed to assist a person to decide where he wants to go, what he wants to do or how he can best accomplish his purpose; it assists him to solve problems that arise in his life”.

           

            According to Kuppuswani, “Guidance is the process of helping a person with his adjustment problems”.

            According to BF Skinner, “Guidance is a process of helping young persons to adjust to self, to others and to circumstances”.

            According to Jones, “Guidance is the help given by one person to another in making choices and adjustments and in solving problems”.

Kothari Commission on guidance

1.         Guidance, therefore, should be regarded as an integral part of education.

2.         It is a continuous process aimed at assisting the individual to make decisions and adjustments from time to time.

3.         Helping pupils to make a satisfactory transition from home to school.

4.         Diagnosing difficulties in learning of basic educational skills.

5.         Identifying pupils in need of special scheme into education (gifted, backward, physically handicapped).

6.         Guiding pupils to develop insight into the world or work.

Objectives of Guidance

1.         To help the individual in psychological, social and physical development.

2.         Adjusting with the psycho-physical and social environment.

3.         To make the individual competent enough to face the challenges successfully.

4.         To provide appropriate knowledge to the individual in accordance with her/his temperament and needs.

5.         To help individual in selection of vocation or profession.

6.         To activate the individual to become self-guided and self-reliant in dealing with life issues.

7.         To assist in selection of subjects of study.

8.         To inculcate the feeling of social service in order to enhance the social well-being.

9.         To provide help in dealing with occupational stress.

10.       To remain positive, cheerful and happy so that individual can improve social adaptability, adjustment and empathy.         

References:

1.         Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial/ Organizational Psychology: An applied approach. Belmont: Wadsworth.

2.         https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kothari_ Commission.

3.         Rao, S. N. (2004). Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

4.         shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/ 2976/8/08_chapter%202.pdf.

Tournaments, types and importance

Tournaments, types and importance

संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान का विकास

ऐतिहासिक परिचय    

            संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान संगठनात्मक सेट अप में मानव व्यवहार का अध्ययन करता है। संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान का मुख्य लक्ष्य इष्टतम उत्पादन के साथ कर्मचारियों की संतुष्ट होती है। संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान की शुरुआत बीसवीं सदी के प्रारंभिक दशक में हुई थी इसलिए इसका इतिहास अपेक्षाकृत छोटा है।

            1903 में वाल्टर डिल स्कॉट (The Theory of Advertising) और 1910 में ह्यूगो मस्टरबर्ग द्वारा प्रकाशित दो पुस्तकों (Psychology and Industrial Efficiency) को संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान का प्रारंभिक बिंदु माना जाता है। स्कॉट ने व्यापार में एप्लाइड मनोविज्ञान के योगदान पर  प्रकाश डाला है जबकि मस्टरबर्ग ने कार्य के लिए उपयुक्त मानसिक क्षमताओं वाले व्यक्तियों के चयन पर  प्रकाश डाला है।

            प्रथम विश्व युद्ध ने संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान की आवश्यकता के द्वार खोल दिए। इस युद्ध के दौरान बड़ी संख्या में सैनिक कई स्थानों पर तैनात किये गये थे। संगठनात्मक मनोवैज्ञानिकों को भर्तियों के लिए सैनिकों का मनोवैज्ञानिक आकलन करके उनको तदनुसार स्थानन के लिए नियोजित किया गया था। उनके मूल्यांकन के लिए अल्फा (साक्षर लोगों के लिए) और बीटा (निरक्षर लोगों के लिए) नामक दो परीक्षणों का उपयोग किया गया था।

            थॉमस एडिसन जैसे महान वैज्ञानिक भी मनोवैज्ञानिक मूल्यांकन के महत्व को समझते थे जिसके फलस्वरूप उन्होंने 150 – प्रश्नों वाले एक परीक्षण का आयोजन किया था। इस आयोजन में लगभग 900 लोगों ने आवेदन किया था जिसको केवल 45 (5%) लोग ही उत्तीर्ण कर पाए थे। आज संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान ने विविध क्षेत्रों में अपनी उपयोगिता को साबित कर दिया है।         

            गिल्बर्ट दंपति प्रमुख वैज्ञानिक थे जिन्होंने संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान के विकास में महत्वपूर्ण योगदान दिया था। उन्होंने गतियों का अध्ययन करके उत्पादकता में सुधार और कर्मचारियों की थकान को कम करने सम्बन्धी अनुसंधान किये।20वीं सदी के तीसरे दशक (1930) में संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान का व्यापक विस्तार हुआ।

           

            हॉथोर्न अध्ययन (At Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company, Chicago) ने मनोवैज्ञानिकों को काम के माहौल की गुणवत्ता और कर्मचारियों के दृष्टिकोण का अध्ययन करने के लिए प्रेरित किया। हॉथोर्न अध्ययन का प्रमुख योगदान यह था कि इसने मनोवैज्ञानिकों को कार्यस्थल पर मानवीय संबंध तथा कर्मचारियों के दृष्टिकोण के प्रभाव का पता लगाने के लिए प्रेरित किया (ओल्सन, वर्ले, सैंटोस और सालास, 2004)।

            मानव संसाधन प्रबंधन के उभरते क्षेत्र ने कर्मचारियों के निष्पक्ष चयन तकनीकों को विकसित करने के लिए मनोवैज्ञानिक सिद्धांतों को अपनाया। 1960 के दशक में प्रबंधकों के लिए संवेदनशीलता प्रशिक्षण और टी-ग्रुप (प्रयोगशाला प्रशिक्षण समूह) का भरपूर उपयोग हुआ। “Beyond Freedom and Dignity” नामक पुस्तक में बी एफ स्किनर (1971) ने संगठनों में कर्मचारियों के व्यवहार में परिवर्तन के लिए इसके इस्तेमाल की वकालत की है। 80 और 90 के दशकों में संगठनात्मक मनोविज्ञान में चार महत्वपूर्ण बदलाव हुए।

(1)       सांख्यिकीय तकनीकों और विश्लेषण के तरीकों का बढ़ता उपयोग,

(2)       उद्योग के लिए संज्ञानात्मक मनोविज्ञान के अनुप्रयोग में रुचि,

(3)       पारिवारिक जीवन और फुर्सत की गतिविधियों पर कार्य का प्रभाव, और

(4)       नौकरी के लिए उपयुक्त व्यक्तियों का चयन।

            21वीं सदी के पहले दशक में विकसित हुई कंप्यूटर प्रौद्योगिकी ने ओ पी के प्रतिमानों में तेजी से बदलाव किया। अविश्वसनीय गति और सटीकता के साथ कंप्यूटर का उपयोग परीक्षणों के लिया किया गया। मशीनों के बेहतर डिजाइन और उन्हें मनुष्यों के अनुकूल बनाने तथा उनके स्वचालन में कंप्यूटर एवं ओ पी का साँझा इस्तेमाल किया गया। कर्मचारियों को ई-मॉड्यूल के माध्यम से प्रशिक्षित किया गया जिसे बिजली की गति से होने वाले संचार ने मुमकिन बनाया।

References:

1.         Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial/ Organizational Psychology: An applied approach. Belmont: Wadsworth.

2.         http://oxfordre.com/psychology/view/10.1093/ acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore-9780190236557-e-39.

3.         https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/ industrial.

4.         http://ijar.org.in/stuff/issues/v4-i1(1)/v4-i1(1)-a013.pdf.

Development of Organizational Psychology

Historical Introduction

            The organisational psychology deals with human behaviour in organizational set up. The ultimate goal of Organisational psychology is fully satisfied employees with optimal production.

            The organizational psychology was born in the initial decade of 20th century therefore is relatively younger. The two books published by Walter Dill Scott in 1903 (The Theory of Advertising) and Hugo Munsterberg in 1910 (Psychology and Industrial Efficiency) is known to be considered as starting point of organizational psychology. Scott applied psychology to business while Munsterberg talked about hiring right people for job who have desired mental abilities.

            The two books published by Walter Dill Scott in 1903 (The Theory of Advertising) and Hugo Munsterberg in 1910 (Psychology and Industrial Efficiency) is known to be considered as starting point of organizational psychology. Scott applied psychology to business while Munsterberg talked about hiring right people for job who have desired mental abilities.

            The break out of World War I opened the floodgates for organizational psychology. The large numbers of soldiers were positioned at several locations. Organizational psychologists were employed to assess recruits and place them accordingly. They were assessed using Alpha (for literate) and Beta (for illiterate) tests. Thomas Edison was quick to understand the importance of psychological assessment and consequently organized a 150-item knowledge test. Almost 900 people applied only 45 (5%) could go through. Organizational psychology started to take deep roots in diverse fields.

            Gilbreth couple were the prominent scientists who contribute in the development of organizational psychology. They focused to improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers. In the third decade of 20th century 1930s, organizational psychology expanded its scope.

            The Hawthorne studies (At Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company, Chicago) prompted psychologists to study the quality of the work environment and attitude of employees. The major contribution of the Hawthorne studies was that it inspired psychologists to increase their focus on human relations in the workplace and to explore the effects of employee attitudes (Olson, Verley, Santos, & Salas, 2004). The emerging field of Human Resource Management adopted psychological practices for developing fair selection techniques. The 1960s were characterized by the use of sensitivity training and T-groups (laboratory training groups) for managers.

            B. F. Skinner’s (1971) in “Beyond Freedom and Dignity” advocated the use of behaviour-modification techniques in organizations.

            The decades of 80s and 90s witnessed four major changes in Organizational psychology.

(1)       Increased use of statistical techniques and methods of analysis,

(2)       Emerged interest in the application of cognitive psychology to industry,

(3)       The effects of work on family life and leisure activities

(4)       Recruitment and selection of right people for the job.

            The development of cognitive ability tests, personality tests, and other psychological tests proved to major contributors in development of organizational psychology.  It effected organizations in several aspects such as better working environments, ergonomics, focus on gender issues, diversity of workforce, psychological traits of individuals, mental health of employees etc. The first decade of 21st century changed the paradigms of OP with exponential growth in computer technology. Computers were used in administration of tests with unbelievable speed and accuracy. It has been used in automation and better designs of machines to suit the human beings. Employees were trained through e-modules a communication was at its best with lightning speed.

References:

1.         Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial/ Organizational Psychology: An applied approach. Belmont: Wadsworth. 

Development of Organizational Psychology

Validity of Psychological Tests

Introduction

            Along with reliability, validity is the second important psychometric property of a psychological test. The test standardization contains a validation process against an accepted criterion. A test to be valid must be reliable too. The low or zero reliability yields the inconsistence results that naturally negate the validity. Hence, all valid tests are compulsorily reliable but all reliable tests may not be valid. It is important to note that a test is valid only for a specific trait or purpose. 

Meaning

            The coefficient of validity shows the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure, when compared with the accepted criterion (Freeman, 1965).

Needs of Validity

(i)        To standardized a test,

(ii)       For testing the predictions of a test against objective or actual outcomes, and

(iii)      For assessing the efficiency of a test by evaluating it against an independent criteria.

Types of Validity

(i)        Predictive Validity – Prediction means to forecast. The efficiency of a test to forecast and differentiate a behaviour or performance in real conditions.

(ii)       Face Validity – It is used to characterize test materials that appear to measure what the test’s author desires to measure. In other words test contents looks to fulfil the purpose of measurement. The face validity is a kind of subjective judgment.       

(iii)      Content Validity – It is estimated by evaluating the relevance of the test items. The contents (items) are supposed to measure the desired behaviour, trait or performance. Generally used for the testing the efficiency and educational achievements. It is achieved by expert analysis followed by statistical analysis.

(iv)      Factorial Validity – The factorial validity is established by a statistical technique known as factor analysis. It indicates the exclusive ability of differentiating among functional unities or primary mental abilities. It helps in devising a test which measures only one functional unity. Factorial validity ensures purity of a psychological test.

(v)       Construct Validity – A method of test validation that is employed to assess or measure the psychological process or traits as defined by the author. It is dependent upon the degree to which selected test items sample the class of activities explained by the mental process or traits. The construct validity ensures that the test scores should represent the trait or process under study.

(vi)      Concurrent Validity – It indicates the process of validating the new test by comparing it for agreement with some recent information. Recent means that the information must be obtained shortly before or very shortly after the test is given.

(vii)     Cross Validation – It means validation of a test on the different sample than the sample on which test was standardized drawn from the same population. It is the attestation of standardization process adopted for the test.

Conditions Affecting Validity

(i)      Sample Heterogeneity,

(ii)     Form of the relationship between test and criterion,

(iii)    Nature of the population or group,

(iv)    Selection of criterion for validation of test,

(v)      Sample size, and

(vi)    Length of test.

Methods of Calculating Validity

(i)        Simple Correlation – To calculate the validity the scores are correlated with each criteria.

(ii)       Biserial Correlation – This method is applied when one of the variables is in binary or categorical form i.e. pass or fail etc. and other variable can be in scores.

(iii)      Tetrachoric Correlation – Used when both the variable between which correlation is to calculated is given in dichotomous or binary form.

(iv)      Multiple Correlation – It is employed to when correlation is to be calculated among more than two variables. In other words this method is used when two or more variables are used as predictors.

(v)       Expectancy Tables – A table containing estimates base on calculated probabilities. These probabilities predicts that the individual who has been tested will achieve a specified score.

(vi)      Cut off Scores – A test score used as a point of demarcation between subjects (testees) who will be accepted & those who will be rejected.

References:

1.         Anastasi, A (1976). Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.

2.         Freeman, F. S. (1965). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Mohan Primlani for Oxford & IBH.

Reliability of Psychological Tests

Introduction

            A definition of psychological tests includes two important terms i.e.  Reliability and Validity. These are the psychometric properties or characteristics of a test. The credibility and generalizability of a psychological test depends upon these two properties. They help in the objective evaluation of a test and ensure that it makes sense. In other words a test is considered standardized only when its reliability and validity are established.

Meaning

            In psychometrics ‘Reliability’ means ‘Consistency’ (agreement between two independently derived sets of scores).

Definitions

            “The ability of a psychometric test to yield consistent results from one set of measures to another” (Freeman, 1965).

            “Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same persons when re-examined with the same test on different  occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items, or under other variable examining conditions” (Anastasi, 1976).

Purpose in Technical Terms

            To estimate what proportion of the total variance of test scores is error variance (Anastasi, 1976).

Purpose in General Terms

            To indicate the extent to which individual differences in test scores are attributable to “true” differences in the characteristics under consideration and the extent to which they are attributable to chance errors (Anastasi, 1976).

Needs of Reliability

            To address the possibility of

(i)        Chance errors,

(ii)       Internal defects of the instrument,

(iii)      Measurement and interaction among individual differences, and

(iv)      To underlie the computation of the error of measurement of a single score.           

Conditions Affecting Reliability

(i)        Actual or true differences among individuals.

(ii)       Differences in specific abilities, 

(iii)      Test taking skills of subjects,

(iv)      Effect of practice of coaching,

(v)       Natural/normal fluctuations in performance,

(vi)      Personal characteristics of subjects, 

(vii)     Physical conditions such as light, heat etc.

(viii)    Unpredictable or chance factors,

(ix)      Fortunate guessing of answers, and

(x)       Competence of examiners and their scoring style (Freeman, 1965).

Methods of Estimating Reliability

1.         Test-Retest – The same form of the test is administered within a week or two twice to the same group of subjects. Time is important if administered less than a week the practice effect due to recall can compromise the reliability co-efficient and in more than two weeks’ time the growth and development can affect the results. Also known as ‘temporal reliability’.

2.         Retest using two equivalent forms – Two separate but equivalent in all respects such as no. of items, difficulty level, item homogeneity, standard deviation etc. of the test to same subjects. This lessens the practice effect due to recall because of different items. But it is little bit of difficult to design and make two similar forms.

3.         Split Half – The test items of a single test are subdivided into two equivalent and separate forms. The two scores obtained are correlated and reliability coefficient is calculated.  It can be achieved only when the test items are arranged in increasing difficulty level. The most practiced method of splitting a test is Odd-even method i.e. odd number items in one test and even number items on the second test. Also known as “Odd-even’ reliability.

Factors affecting Reliability 

(i)        Range of ages,

(ii)       Range of scores,

(iii)      Time interval between testing,

(iv)      The effect of practice and learning,

(v)       Reliability of subtests, and

(vi)      Consistency of scores.

References:

1.         Anastasi, A (1976). Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.

2.         Freeman, F. S. (1965). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Mohan Primlani for Oxford & IBH.

Nature and Uses of Psychometric Tests

Purpose of PT

            The function of psychological tests is to measure individual differences.

Definition      

            A standardized, valid and reliable instrument used to assess and quantify specific or group of psychological traits for diagnosis, classification or recruitment purpose.

Nature

            The psychometric tests are designed to measure either cognitive traits (capabilities) or non-cognitive traits.

(i)        Cognitive capabilities – Intelligence, memory, reaction time, problem solving etc.

(ii)       Non-cognitive capabilities – Personality traits, attitude, interest etc.

           

            The tests are diverse in their nature and can be objective, subjective, individual, group, projective, non-projective, speed & power etc. The psychological tests inherently have predictive and diagnostic abilities in their nature. The second most important trait of a test is standardization which implies uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring the test by different individuals. These tests are standardized on a representative sample of the population of interest. The items or performance activities contained in the psychological tests are representatives of the trait they are supposed to measure or predict. An empirical correspondence between the predicted behaviour and test items is one of the expected natural properties of tests. The other important aspect of tests is that items have no right or wrong answers. Time taken by a subject that has been set by the test constructor to complete the test is another important characteristic of nature of the test.

Applications or Uses of Psychological Tests

1.         Primarily for the determination and analyses of individual differences.

2.         Study of groups for psychological, educational, cultural and sociological purposes.

3.         For educational classification, selection and planning.

4.         Armed forces are the major users of these tests.

5.         Educational and vocational guidance.

6.         Diagnosis of people with problems of learning, behaviour and attitudes etc.

7.         Selection and recruitment of personnel for job.

8.         Prediction of behaviour.

9.         Measurement of behaviour.

References:

1.         Anastasi, A (1976). Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.

2.         Freeman, F. S. (1965). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Mohan Primlani for Oxford & IBH.

Historic Development of Psychometric Tests

Historical Development

1.         Francis Galton (British Biologist) (1822-1911) was the first scientist to undertake systematic and statistical investigations on individual differences.

2.         E H Weber (Anatomist) (1795-1878) focussed on quantitative experimental approach to psychological problems and proposed famous Weber’s law.

3.         Wilhelm Wundt (1879) established first psychological lab at Leipzig and employed physiological and introspection methods for studying human beings.

4.         James McKeen Cattel (1860-1944) rigorously studied and focussed on the range of individual differences through experiments and applied methods to study hearing, vision, reaction time etc.

5.         Alfred Binet & Simon produced first standard scale of intelligence in 1905 which was primarily used for the identification & classification of mentally defective individuals. The test was revised in 1908 and 1911.

6.         Group Tests (1917) were the results of World War I. Psychologists developed two group tests for Army i.e. alpha (verbal) and beta (non-verbal). The usage of tests in Army demonstrated the possibility of values of group tests which are economical and effective. Schools too started using these tests for various purposes.

7.         Performance Tests – These tests were results of criticism of use of language in Binet Simon test. These tests provide a perceptual situation in which the subject manipulates items such as blocks, boards, pictures etc. (Bhatia Battery, WAIS).

8.         Aptitude Test – These tests received impetus in WWI. It is intended to measure an individual ability to perform a task of a limited or specific kind e.g. clerical, mechanical, musical etc. These were developed to fulfil the US Army requirements. To find the right person for right job.

9.         Occupational Interest Inventories were developed to assess the professional interest for organizations.

10.       Tests of Educational Achievements were developed to measure the individual’s actual learning in educational subject matter after a period on instructions.

11.       Test Batteries – Developed during WWII for selection and training of personal in the various branches of armed forces.

12.       Multifactor Tests – Also called DAT. These tests were the result of development of statistical technique of Factor Analysis. It isolated and measure relatively “Pure” mental operation or constellations. These tests isolate the elements that constitute mental operations.

13.     Personality Tests – These tests were developed to evaluate non-intellectual traits of personality. Galton (1879) and Pearson devised questionnaires & rating scales.

14.       Rating Scales – These were means of obtaining the judgments of a number of respondents with reference to a limited number of traits of an individual.

15.       Self-Rating Inventories (SRI) – R. S. Woodworth (1919) devised first SRI for military use. The purpose was to detect personality and behavioural symptoms that are regarded as indicative of maladjustment.

16.       Personality Tests – These tests were developed to evaluate non-intellectual traits of personality. Galton (1879) and Pearson devised questionnaires & rating scales.

            (i)        Rorschach Inkblot test by Herman     Rorschach (Swiss) (1921).

            (ii)       TAT by HA Murray and CD Morgan (1935)

17.       Present Scene – At present education system and Military are the biggest users of psychological tests. Due to specialization in profession the vocational system too is extensively using these tests. The journey of psychological testing began with identification of special schooling of mentally deficient children & presently reached to a tremendous scope touching almost every aspect of human life.

References:

1.         Anastasi, A (1976). Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.

2.         Freeman, F. S. (1965). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Mohan Primlani for Oxford & IBH.