मानव कान की संरचना और कार्य Structure and Function of Ear

Eng Structure and Function of Ear

Auditory Sensory Process in English

मानव आँख की सरंचना और प्रकार्य Structure and Function of Eye

Statistics Part IV Fundamental Statistics and Correlation

Statistics Part III Fundamental Statistics and Correlation

Statistics Part II Fundamental Statistics and Correlation

Statistics Part I Fundamental of Statistics

Eng Structure and Function of Eye

Eng Structure and Function of Eye

Hin Sensory Process Visual

Depth Perception and Cues

Definition

Depth Perception – The process or ability to perceive the world in three dimensions is called depth perception. It is the mental process that leads to formation of perceptual concept of depth and distance between objects in space.

Space – Space is a visual field or surface in which things exist, move or can be positioned.

Introduction

          The concept of perception is also called as distance perception. The ability of ‘depth perception’ is instrumental in judging the distance between objects that are found in space. Space is a three dimensional surface. The image of objects formed on the retina is two dimensional and flat. But our brain perceives objects as three dimensional. This occurs due to presence of two types of cues i.e. Monocular cues and Binocular cues.

Cues

1.       Monocular Cues (Signals) – Monocular means ‘with, for or one eye’. The cues provided by one eye for perceiving depth & distance. They are also called as ‘pictorial depth cues’. They are effective when the objects are seen with only one eye. The artists often uses these cues to show depth in distance in two dimensional paintings. The few monocular cues are described below: -

(i)       Relative Size – The object tends to appear small when it is farther away and bigger when it is closer. This cue is function of size of retinal image.

(ii)      Linear Perspective – This reflects a phenomenon by which distant objects appear to be closer to one another than the nearer objects such as railway tracks appear to converge in the distance. The more the line converge , the farther away the appear.

(iii)     Interposition or Overlapping – These cues are generated when one object overlaps or covers another object. In this case the overlapping object is seen as closer than the overlapped object.

(iv)     Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective – The distant objects are seen as hazy or blurry due to presence of microscopic  particles such as dust and moisture in the atmosphere.

(v)      Light & Shade – The lighter part of an object seen to closer while the darker one is seen to be away. The highlights and shadows provide information about an object’s distance and depth.

(vi)     Relative Height – The distant objects are seen as smaller while the closer one are seen as larger and vice versa despite being of same size.

(vii)    Texture Gradient –  The texture of a surface appears smoother as distance increases the denser area of a visual   field is seen as farther and vice versa.

(viii)   Motion Parallax – It occurs when the distant objects move to appear slowly than the objects that are closer. The rate of movement of an object provides a cue to its distance. When we travel in a vehicle, the far away objects appear to move in direction with the vehicle, whereas closer objects seen to be move in the opposite direction. This is kinetic cue rather than pictorial cue.

2.       Binocular Cues – Binocular means ‘using both eyes’. The cues provided by both eyes for perceiving depth & distance.

(i)       Retinal or Binocular Disparity (असमानता) – It is also known as ‘binocular parallax’. It occurs due to distance between the location of eyes that is 6.5 cm. Due to this distance the image of same object forms differently on both retinas. This difference is called as retinal disparity. Larger the disparity closer the object is seen and vice versa because the disparity is lesser for distant objects and larger for close objects.

(ii)      Convergence – The inward turning of our eyes to see closer objects is called convergence. The convergence occurs to bring the image of the object on the fovea (yellow spot) of each eye. The concerned muscles transmit the message regarding the degree of inward turning of eyes to the brain which are understood as depth perception cues. Closer the object higher the convergence and vice versa.

(iii)     Accommodation – It refers to a process by which we focus the image on the retina with the help of ciliary muscles (changes the thickness of the lens). These muscles are relaxed in the event of object being away by more than 2 meters. The thickness of lens increases when the object is closer and vice versa. The change in the thickness of lens is controlled by ciliary muscles which transmit the    message to the brain. Where these messages are interpreted as depth perception cues.

References:

1.       NCERT, XI Psychology Text book.

2.       Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2016). Psychology. Noida: Pearson India.

3.       Baron, R. (1993). Psychology.

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Perceptual Organization

Definition of Perceptual Organization

          It is the mental process of organizing and structuring various neural impulses generated by retina. The brain uses various visual cues to organize various stimuli. The phenomena of perceptual organization helps in perceiving the objects even in the

absence of complete information.

Introduction

          The concept of perceptual organization was first systematically studied by gestalt psychologists in early 1900s. They suggested that the “whole is different from sum of its parts”. The gestalt viewpoint suggested that human beings are naturally oriented to organize the various stimuli in to a ‘whole’ to give meaning to the information. During the process of studying perceptual organization they proposed various laws of perception. These laws are also known as laws of grouping because we are naturally wired to group stimuli. These laws explain how and why the process of grouping takes place.

Principles of Perceptual Organization

1.       Principle of Proximity – This principle states that objects that are close together in space or time are perceived as a group.

2.       Principle of Similarity – This principle states that objects that are similar to one another and have similar characteristics are perceived as belonging to a group.

3.     Principle of Continuity – According to this principle the objects which form a continuous pattern are perceived to be a part of group or seen to belongs together.

4.       Principle of Symmetry – It states that symmetrical areas are perceived as figures while asymmetrical are perceived as background.

5.       Principle of Closure or Contours – According to this principle human brain tends to fill up the gaps found in stimuli and perceive the object as a whole rather than a discrete parts.

6.       Principle of Smallness – This principle states that small areas are perceived as figures against larger areas.

7.       Principle of Surroundedness – It states that areas surrounded by other area tend to be perceived as figures and the area that surrounds is perceived as background.

8.       Principle of Common Region – This was not one of the original principles but later added by Stephen Palmer in 1992. It is the tendency to perceive objects that are in common area or region as being in the group (Ciccarelli & Mayer, 2016).

9.       Principle of Common Fate – The Law of Common Fate states that objects moving in the same direction appear to be grouped together.

References:

1.       NCERT, XI Psychology Text book.

2.       Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2016). Psychology. Noida: Pearson India.

3.       Baron, R. (1993). Psychology.

4.       http://learn.sparklelabs.com/dmdesign3/ category/assignment/describe-the-gestalt-principles/

5.       https://in.pinterest.com/pin/324470348137458213 /?lp=true

6.       http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Modules /FM21820/visper07.html

7.       https://www.toptal.com/designers/ui/gestalt-principles-of-design.

8.       http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/sgrais/gestalt_principles.htm.

9.       https://naldzgraphics.net/gestalt-principles-graphic-web-design.

Perception of Form and Figure Ground

Definition of Form Perception

          The process of organizing visual field into meaningful wholes is known as form perception (NCERT).

          Form perception refers to our ability to visually perceive objects in the world in response to the patterns of light that they caste on our retinas (link.springer.com).

Introduction

          Our environment is full of varied beautiful objects, colours, shapes that are sensed by our eyes and consequently perceived by brain into complete meaningful objects and events. It occurs when different characteristics and parts of an object are combined by the brain and then perceived. Perception is a conscious experience and learning is the function of perceptual process. The perception of ‘form’ of an object starts with formation of two dimensional image of the object on the retina. Than the neural impulses are organized and interpreted by the brain in various contexts. The ‘form’ perception is multilevel simultaneous process that happens in one composite instance. It starts from understanding primary components of an object such as lines, contours, edges, vertices, colours etc. Then the relation between these primary components and their relative meaning is perceived & finally the form of an object as a whole is perceived. The form perception is the outcome of perceptual organization. It is the process by which the brain structures the input from sensory receptors (Baron, 1993).

Some Brief on Form Perception

          Gestalt School of thought explained the form perception in its totality. The individuals do not perceive different components of an object as discrete but as an organized whole that carries a form. This form is different from the sum of their components. The Gestalt psychologists proposed several principles of perceptual   organization  (organization of   sensory information). The Gestaltists suggests that we are naturally oriented to perceive Good figures or Pragnanz (Concise and meaningful) hence, we everything in organized form. The figure-ground relationship helps clarify between the sensation and perception. While the pattern of sensory inputs generated in our senses remain constant, while    our perception shifts (Baron, 1993).

Basis for Difference between Figure and Ground

1.       Figure has a definite form, while ground or background is formless.

2.       Relatively figure is better organised than ground.

3.       Figure is perceived to have clear contours, while background seems to have none.

4.       Figure stands out from the background, while background stays behind the figure.

5.       Figure is perceived as more clear, limited, and relatively nearer and background relatively unclear, unlimited, and away from us. 

References:

1.       NCERT, XI Psychology Text book.

2.       Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E., (2016). Psychology. Noida: Pearson India.

3.       Baron, R. (1993). Psychology.

4.       Grossberg S., (2009). Form Perception. In: Binder M.D., Hirokawa N., Windhorst U. (eds) Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

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Nature of Perception – II (Factors Affecting Perception (Perceiver's))

Factors Affecting Perception (Perceiver's)

Perception is affected by two types of factors

1.       Perceiver’s factors (internal) &

2.       Stimulus factors (External)

Perceiver’s factors (Internal)

1.       Motivation – The motives of an individual have significant effect on the perception (Effect of hunger on perception).

2.       Expectations – What an individual ‘expects’ from a particular stimulus or event influences the perception of that event or stimulus. Perceiving things under the influence of expectation is known as perceptual familiarisation or perceptual generalization.

3.       Cognitive Style – It refers to consistent way of dealing with environment (NCERT). The way people think & perceive the sensation. Two type of cognitive style such as Field Dependent and Field Independent are more often used by people.

4.       Cultural Aspects – The individual develops within the framework of culture and social set up. The cultural aspects such as traditions, folklores, mores and regulations influence the perceptual process.

5.       Experiences – Experiences         modify behaviour (learning). The diverse experiences influence the perception of individual (Hudson           studies of African and Eskimos)

Stimulus factors (External)

1.       Intensity of Stimulus – It means the relative strength of the stimulus. Stimulus with higher intensity are perceived easily.

2.       Attractiveness of Stimulus – The quality of being pleasing or appealing to the senses. Attractive stimuli are perceived earlier.

4.     Distance from the Stimulus – The physical distance between the stimulus and perceiver. Stimuli that are nearer are perceived easily and earlier than the stimuli which are farther.

5.       Size – The size of stimulus means its relative dimensions. Larger visual stimuli are perceived earlier and easily.

6.       Frequency – The rate of occurrence of a stimulus. Higher the frequency easily it can be perceived.

7.       Novelty and Familiarity – The novelty means ‘new stimulus’ and familiarity means ‘previous experience with particular stimulus’. The novel and familiar stimuli are perceived easily and earlier.

Reference:

1.       NCERT, XI Psychology Text book.

2.       Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2016). Psychology. Noida: Pearson India.

3.       Baron, R. (1993).  Psychology.

4.  https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/45837592/more-than-a-body-mind-perception-and-the-nature-of-objectification.

5.       https://nobaproject.com/modules/multi-modal-perception.

Nature of Perception – Part-I

Meaning and Definition

Meaning – Perception has been derived from the Latin word ‘Perceptio’  which means ‘receiving, collection’.

Definition – The process by which we recognize, interpret or give meaning to the information provided by sense organs is called perception (NCERT).

Introduction

          Perception is one of the topics of cognitive domain. The information received from senses is selected, organized and interpreted (Baron, 1993) to give meaning that helps in understanding the environment. It is the process of making sense out of raw material provided by the senses. It is mediated by intellect, prior knowledge, motivation, cultural perspective, memory, learning, emotional state, characteristics of stimulus, expectation and other psycho-physiological processes. Perception is interpretation of sensory inputs.

Nature of Perception

          Interestingly perception is subjective as well as objective complex process. Subjective in the sense that no two individual perceive the same stimulus in similar fashion (E.g. looking at rising sun). Objective in a sense that certain stimuli are perceived exactly same by all people at all times except those with psycho-biological deficiency (E.g. perception of colours). It represents the immediate mental state of the perceiver (E.g. Projective methods). Every individual is similar in objective aspects but differs in subjective aspects. The differential subjective aspect leads to uniqueness in behaviour where perception is one of the decisive factors. Perception is the product of information processing. The processing of information is assisted by the generation of virtual relevant images which are the basic building blocks of perception. Depending upon the situations perception can by achieved by analysis or synthesis of information.

          It highly correlates with conscious observation skills (the finer the observation skills the lesser the gap between the perception and reality). Remember perception is not the exact mirror image of reality rather representative one which is prone to modification. The perception influences and get influenced (two way relationship) by various psychological process such as arousal, motivation, emotions, overt behaviour etc.

Reference:

1.       NCERT, XI Psychology Text book.

2.       Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2016). Psychology. Noida: Pearson India.

3.       Baron, R. (1993).  Psychology.

4.       https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/45837592/more-than-a-body-mind-perception-and-the-nature-of-objectification.

5.       https://nobaproject.com/modules/multi-modal-perception

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