Social Factors of Human Development

Social Factors of Human Development

Introduction

            The manifestation of diverse social behaviour by human beings is the result of various social factors. These factors jointly expresses the ‘Development’ in psycho-social domains of the child.

Factors

1.         Family

2.         Social Environment

3.         Ecology

4.         Socio-Economic Status

5.         Peer Group Interactions

6.         Education

7.         Neighbourhood

1.         Family – Family is the most important unit of social set up. Child spends her initial years of learning within the environs of family. It prepares the base for growth and development by providing social contexts, situations and opportunities.  Family is the launching platform where child learns behavioural patterns, values, realities, skills, norms and adjustment in order to deal with outside world. The size, geographical location and cultural aspects of family affects the child in her forming years. The conditions (Economic, Illness, work stress, etc.) of family too influences the development of the child. The family continue to affect the development throughout all the five stages i.e. infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. In essence, family tops-up the child’s psycho-social quiver with required munitions.

2.         Social Environment (SE) – SE stimulates the social development. It consists of immediate social institutions such as neighborhood, family members, peers etc. The interpersonal relations (social) is the most important aspects of the SE. From SE a child learns the sense of right & wrong. The other important features that a child gather from SE are trust, faith and sharing. Social environment provides opportunities for self representation

and exploration that helps in development of social identity. SE arms the child with necessary skills that comes handy in dealing with isolation, rejection and mental conflicts. Through role models SE contributes in development of observational skills which are the fundamental components in development of autonomy in choices and decisions. It comparatively have larger effect during the childhood and adolescence than other three stages.   

3.         Ecology –  It is the study of individual’s interaction with surrounding environment. The ecological environment is dynamic in its nature. According to Durganand Sinha (1977) the ecology of the child can be viewed in terms of two concentric layers i.e. Upper layer and Surrounding layer.

            (i)        Upper layer (visible layer) – It consists of    home, school, peer group etc.

            (ii)       Surrounding layer – It consists of general     geographical environs, institutional settings   provided by caste, class etc. and general       amenities. 

            Both these layers interacts & influence each other, subsequently contribute significantly in child development.

4.         Socio-Economic Status (SES) –  Socioeconomic status is the social standing or class of an individual or group. It is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation (APA). A measure and decisive factor that have profound effect on the development of a child. The opportunities, nutrition, education, quality of life, health care access and other physical amenities etc. are the function of SES. Studies across the board confirmed that SES is the major contributory factor in child development. Lower SES can lead to poor psychological & physical health, deprived education and impact negatively family well-being which consequently affects the development negatively.

5.         Education –  According to Swami Vivekananda education is the manifestation of perfection already in man. Education is a man-making, life giving and character-building tool. It facilitates learning, assists in acquiring skills, inculcate values, ensures proper socialization, develops morality & etiquettes. Education initiates a concept of enquiry and largely satisfies the curiosity (psychological motive) arising out occurrence of natural phenomenon. Education contributes in development of mind and body to their fullest. The appropriate education strives to make an individual psychologically complete that leads to self actualization of human being. Education accelerates creativity and holistic development. In sum education makes an individual complete, humble and humane

6.         Peer group Interaction (in context of child) – Peer group (PG) is a social group of people with approximately same age, socio-economic status and interests. The effect of PG is

most interesting & observable during the adolescence. It influences the personal beliefs, social values, thought pattern and even educational achievements. Peer group is a hard bound institution that tends to optimize the behavioural outcomes of an individual. PG interaction have profound impact on the psycho-social development and social competence of adolescents. PG members even provide answers of the questions that remained unanswered elsewhere. The group members tends to develop their own dialect and sign language for close within group communication. The PG interaction is crucial contributor in human development.

7.         Neighbourhood - The childhood (3-12 yrs.) is most susceptible to neighbourhood influences on development. The neighbourhood initiates a accepted pattern of socialization in child. The child tends to learn and compare various abstract phenomena from the neighbourhood. The concept of ‘Peer Group’ is defined through interaction with neighbourhood. The construct of identification of strengths and limitations of self, outdoor behaviour, responsibility, emotional management etc. are learned by the child through the interaction with neighbourhood.

References:

(i)        NCERT, XI Psychology Text Book.

(ii)       Mangal, S. K. (2002). Advanced Educational Psychology. Delhi: PHI.

(iii)      Tripathi, L. B. & Pandey, S (2009). मानव विकास का मनोविज्ञान. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.

(iv)      https://www.apa.org/topics/socioeconomic-status/index. Aspx.

(v)       https://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/ children- families.aspx.

(vi)      https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/role-of-family-in-childs-development/

(vii)     https://www.all4kids.org/2017/12/11/role-family-child-development/.

(viii)    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachings_and_philosophy _of_Swami_Vivekananda

Biological Factors of Human Development

Biological Factors of Human Development

Introduction

          The development of human being is affected by the several factors ‘biological’ is one among them. The biological factors play decisive role in creating beautiful diversity in psycho-physical characteristics of human beings. The colour of eyes, skin, hair, height, intellectual capability or personality types are gifts of these factors. Interestingly human beings are different yet similar. Development is to move from dependency to increasing autonomy (wikipedia.com).

Factors

1.         Genetic (Heredity)

2.         Nutrition

3.         Prenatal period

4.         Hormones

5.         Sex

1.         Genetics (Heredity) – Genes through chromosomes carries characteristics that are transmitted from parents to child. Child develops throughout life within the limits of genetic blueprint. The shape, texture, colour and features of physical (height, eyes, skin, hair etc.) and psychological (Intelligence, aptitude and personality) traits are the outcomes of this blueprint (Examples of phenotype). Interestingly Genes also carries strains of certain diseases i.e. heart related ailments, autism, diabetes, asthma etc. The genetic heritage of an individual is known as ‘Genotype’. It is important to note that all genetic material is not observable in human beings. The observable and measureable characteristics of genotype are known as ‘Phenotype’.

2.         Nutrition – Nutrition is the process by which the body nourishes itself and body tissues by transforming food into energy. Nutrients provide energy; to grow, repair, and maintain tissues of human body(kids.britannica.com).The various food Components such as Proteins, fats,  vitamins, minerals & carbohydrates combine together to form nutrients. We receive these nutrients from various types of foods. In essences nutrition can either make or break the body system.

3.         Prenatal Period – It is the time between conception and birth. The prenatal period is commonly divided into three stages i.e. Germinal stage, Embryonic stage and Fetal stage.

(i)        Germinal Stage – From conception (meeting of sperm cell with egg) to two weeks zygote forms. In this stage ball of cells starts receiving oxygen & other nutrients.

(ii)       Embryonic Stage – From end of germinal stage i.e. third week to two months after conception the ball of cells is now called as ‘Embryo’. This stage is most crucial for brain and neural system development. The cardiovascular and other features such as eyes, nose etc. starts to form. The basic structure of the brain and nervous system is defined at this stage (verywellmind.com).

(iii)      Fetal Stage – This stage begins at 9^th week (Approximately after 2^nd month) and lasts until birth. The systems started to develop in Embryonic stage develops further. The inner process of brain development is most important for future psychological outcomes. At the end of this stage fetus prepares itself for the life outside the womb.

4.         Hormones (Little managers of human body) –       Hormone is a regulatory chemical produced by specialized group of cells known as ‘Glands’. The endocrine (ductless) glands regulates human development through  release of hormones at regular intervals. Hormones are transported by blood stream. Certain hormones are produced by human body throughout life while some are at required time of life. Every hormone has its specific allocated role in development of human body. For example the growth hormone is responsible for the growth of human body which is released through out life cycle. The development of secondary sex characteristics are also the result of the ‘gonadotropic’ hormone released by gonads at the time of puberty. The normal and timely release of all hormones is very important for both psychological and physical well-being. In absence of balanced secretion of hormones at specific times the body will not grow, develops, mature and reproduce (NCERT).

5.         Sex – The sex of a child plays differentiating role in development especially near puberty. Girls and boys develops in accordance with their chromosomal set up. Girls develops faster during adolescence while boys takes more time to mature. Boys muscle mass and bone strength is higher than girls. Their body structure differs to meet differential psycho-socio-biological needs. The sex also influence the temperamental pattern of both genders. 

References:

(i)        wikipedia.com

(ii)       https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/factors-that-affect-growth-and-development-in-children/

(iii)      https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/food-and-nutrition/274373.

(iv)      https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kC6p1twkXk.

(v)       https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/list-of-ductless-glands-present-in-the-human-body-1513862468-1

(vi)      NCERT, XI Psychology Text Book.

(vii)     Mangal, S. K. (2002). Advanced Educational Psychology. Delhi: PHI.

Principles of Human Development

Principles of Human Development

Introduction

          Development is unique psycho-biological phenomena to every human being in its manifestation but the process is similar, organize, sequential and logical which is based on certain inherent patterns. These pattern are called as the ‘Principles of Human Development’. These principles helps us in predicting the process of development to a certain degree of accuracy.    

The development follows three Universal Biological and 9 General Principles.

Biological Principles:

1.         Cephalocaudal

2.         Proximodistal, &

3.         Orthogenetic.

General Principles:

1.         Principle of Continuity,

2.         Principle of lack of uniformity in the rate of development,

3.         Principle of individual differences,

4.         Principle of uniformity of pattern,

5.         Principle of proceeding from general from specific responses ,

6.         Principle of integration,

7.         Principle of interrelation,

8.         Principle of interaction, and

9.         Principle of predictability,

1.         Cephalocaudal – It means ‘head to toe’. Cephalic means ‘Head’ region while Caudal means ‘Tail’ region. The development of area near to main neural region (head) than the area distant from it. The infants head is proportionately larger than the body due to which infants while crawling uses the arms earlier than legs. It indicates that the head develops before the body in the prenatal period (prior to 5 months).

2.         Proximodistal – The proximo means ‘near’ and distal means ‘far’. The prenatal development from 5 months until birth when the fetus' body grows from the ‘inside’ of the body ‘outwards’. It refers to development that proceeds from the centre of the body and moves towards the extremities.

3.         Orthogenetic – It is also known as progressive evolution. The development of all aspects of functioning (including cognition, perception, etc.) progresses from lack of differentiation to increasing differentiation, articulation, and hierarchic integration (Heinz Werner, 1975). The development of simple skills before complex skills is a type of orthogenetic development.

General Principles:

1.         Principle of Continuity – It means development is continuous through out life cycle. It’s a gradual and incessant modification in both the domains (Psychological and physiological) of human being.

2.         Principle of Lack of Uniformity in the Rate of Development – Although it is continuous but the rate of development is not uniform in cognitive, physical aspects and stages of human beings. For example in two children the height may increase at varying rate, similar is the case with emotions. 

3.         Principle of Individual Differences – The genetic make up of every human being is unique and exclusive. Hence, the development is accordingly distinct in all dimensions.

4.         Principle of Uniformity of Pattern – The pattern of development is uniform and universal in its scope. The development of cognitive abilities, language development, learning to walk etc. develops in a definite and uniform pattern with distinct rate and manifestation.

5.         Principle of Proceeding from General from Specific Responses – According to this principle child learns to respond in general terms than gradually picks up specific responses. For example while waving the child initially uses full arm and then learns to wave only palm similar is the case with language where she address all individuals mummy and papa etc. 

6.         Principle of Integration – The development is from specific to whole and from whole to specific (Kuppuswami, 1963)  that means it is a integrated effort of all parts and organs of the body.

7.         Principle of Interrelation – A famous quote, “Healthy mind resides in healthy body”, which indicates that the development of one organ is directly or indirectly related to the development of other organ/s and body parts. The poorly developed brain can lead to poor emotional and intellectual responses.

8.         Principle of Interaction – The active interaction of internal and external forces results in comprehensive development. For example “Nature v/s Nurture” example suggests the significant role of genes and psycho-social environment in development.

9.         Principle of Predictability – As we have discussed that development follows the principle of uniformity of pattern and continuity which refers to that its sequence can be predicted. For example ‘Babinski’ is a reflex found in newborn babies that disappears at the age to 8 to 12 months etc.

References:

(i)        NCERT, XI Psychology Text Book.

(ii)       Mangal, S. K. (2017). Advanced Educational Psychology, 2^nd ed. Delhi: PHI Learning.

(iii)      http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/educational-psychology/principles-of-human-growth-and-development/1813

(iv)      https://study.com/academy/lesson/principles-of-growth-and-development.html.

(v)       http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/12-main-principles-of-growth-and-development-of-children/116600.

(vi)      https://dictionary.apa.org/orthogenetic-principle

Concept of Human Development

Concept of Human Development

Development in Indian Literature

BG: 2.28 – “All bodies are latent in the beginning, they manifest in the middle, O Bhaarata. In the end, they will become latent again, so why should you grieve about this”.

            It means that life emerges from oblivion, manifests itself and finally dissolves into oblivion. ‘Manifests itself’ is the space where development occurs in the city of nine gates (BG: 5.13). The control & purification of ‘mind’ is the fundamental in the process of development during the manifestation process.

            BG: 13.6 – The field of activities  (body) is composed of the five great elements, the ego, the intellect, the unrevealed primordial matter (prakṛiti), the eleven senses (daśhaikaṁ) (five knowledge senses, five working senses, and mind), and the five objects of the senses.

(i)        pañcha-mahābhūta (the five gross elements—earth, water, fire, air, and space),

(ii)       Five knowledge senses (ears, eyes, tongue, skin, and nose),

(iii)      The five working senses (voice, hands, legs, genitals, and anus), and

(iv)      mind.  

            BG: 13.7 – Desire and aversion, happiness and misery, the body, consciousness, and the will—all these comprise the field and its modifications.

            The body is the field of activities.  It undergoes six transformations until death

(i)        asti (coming into existence),

(ii)       jāyate (birth),

(iii)      vardhate (growth),

(iv)      viparinamate (reproduction),

(v)       apakṣhīyate (withering with age),

(vi)      vinaśhyati (death). 

It supports the soul in its quest for happiness.

Psychologists who Studied Development

(i)        Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development),

(ii)       Urie Bronfenbrenner (Contextual View of development),

(iii)      Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (Social Development Theory),

(iv)      Durganand Sinha (Ecological Model),

(v)       Harry Frederick Harlow (Effect of Attachment on social and cognitive development),

(vi)      Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development), and

(vii)     Lawrence Kohlberg (Moral Development).

Meaning of Development

            The gradual qualitative and quantitative changes or acquiring new stages over life span by human being from conception to birth and to old age is the process of development. The development is a structural and functional flow through the cycle of life. The pattern of development is similar but the manifestation of it is unique in each human being.

Major Developmental Stages

(i)        Prenatal Stage (40 weeks/9 months)

(ii)       Infancy (up to 2 years)

(iii)      Childhood (3 to 11 years)

(iv)      Adolescent (12 to 17 years)

(v)       Adulthood (18 to 60 years)

(vi)      Old age (> 60 years)

Definition - “Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin at conception and continue throughout life”. It involves both growth and decline in physical, psychological and social domains of human being.

Few Examples of Developmental Changes:

(i)        Physical – Muscular & bone strength changes etc.

(ii)       Psychological – Changes in cognitive system such as thinking pattern, problem solving ability, attention and perceptual process etc.

(iii)      Social – Changes in interpersonal relations, social adaptation, social behaviour etc.

Development is not an isolated phenomena, it is the interplay of Biological, Cognitive and Socio-emotional processes.

(i)        Biological – The genes inherited from parents influences the development of height, weight, brain, heart, lungs, and physiological features comes under biological processes.

(ii)       Cognitive – The changes in mental faculties such as memory, recognition, understanding abstraction etc.

(iii)      Socio-emotional – The changes in social interaction, emotional response and in personality etc. For example child’s hug or manifestation of sorrow by an adolescent on losing a competition etc.

Life Span Perspective on Development

(i)        Development is life long (gain and loses).

(ii)       Development is multidirectional.

(iii)      Development is highly plastic i.e. within person it is modifiable (skills and abilities can be improved)

(iv)      Development is influenced by historical conditions. For example the experiences of 20 years olds who lived through the freedom struggle in India would be very different from the experiences of 20 years olds today.

(v)       Development is studied by psychology, anthropology, sociology, neuroscience etc.

(vi)      The individual responses are context dependent i.e. individual responds on the basis of inheritance, immediate environment, social set up and cultural factors.

Major Terms

(i)        Development – A process by which an individual grows and changes throughout the life cycle.

(ii)       Growth – It refers to an increase in the size of body parts or of the organised as a whole. It can be measured or quantified.

(iii)      Maturation – It refers to the changes that follow an orderly sequence and are largely dictated by the genetic blueprint which produces commonalities in our growth and development.

(iv)      Evolution – it refers to species specific changes. Emergence of human beings from great apes about 14 million years ago.

Nature and Scope of Organizational Psychology

Exotic Snow Scene

Exotic Snow Scene

जन्मपूर्व विकास

History of applied psychology