Psychology and Life by Dr Rajesh Verma
If you love your self than you can love others.
Friday, June 21, 2024
Tuesday, June 18, 2024
One Way ANOVA: An introduction
Introduction
A one-way ANOVA (“analysis of
variance”) compares the means of three or more independent groups to determine
if there is a statistically significant difference between the corresponding
population means.
Steps of ANOVA.
Step 1: Calculate
the mean of each group along with the overall mean.
Step 2: Calculate
the correction term (Cx)
Monday, April 22, 2024
टू-वे एनोवा: एक परिचय
परिभाषा
टू-वे एनोवा, जिसे दो कारक एनोवा के रूप में भी जाना जाता है, एक सांख्यिकीय तकनीक है जिसका उपयोग निरंतर (Continuous) निर्भर चर (Independent variables) पर दो श्रेणीबद्ध स्वतंत्र चर (Categorical independent variable) के प्रभाव का विश्लेषण करने के लिए किया जाता है। यह वन-वे एनोवा के सिद्धांतों को उन स्थितियों तक विस्तारित करता है जहां परिणाम को प्रभावित करने वाले दो स्वतंत्र चर या कारक होते हैं।
कारक: टू-वे एनोवा में, दो कारकों या स्वतंत्र चर का अध्ययन किया जाता है। ये कारक विभिन्न उपचारों, स्थितियों या स्तरों का प्रतिनिधित्व कर सकते हैं जिनका किसी प्रयोग में प्रतिभागियों या विषयों को सामना करना पड़ता है।
मुख्य प्रभाव (main effect): टू-वे एनोवा दो मुख्य प्रभावों का आकलन करता है: आश्रित चर पर एक कारक का प्रभाव जबकि दूसरे कारक की अनदेखी करना, और इसके विपरीत। उदाहरण के लिए, यदि एक कारक आहार का प्रकार है और दूसरा व्यायाम का स्तर है, तो मुख्य प्रभाव यह आकलन करेगा कि प्रत्येक कारक व्यक्तिगत रूप से वजन घटाने को कैसे प्रभावित करता है।
इंटरेक्शन प्रभाव (interaction effect): मुख्य प्रभावों के अलावा, टू-वे एनोवा इंटरेक्शन प्रभाव का भी मूल्यांकन करता है, जो यह पता लगाता है कि क्या एक कारक का प्रभाव दूसरे कारक के स्तर पर निर्भर करता है। इस अंतःक्रिया (interaction) से पता चलता है कि आश्रित चर पर दो कारकों का संयुक्त या सम्मिलित प्रभाव है या नहीं। उदाहरण के लिए, दवा की प्रभावशीलता पर एक अध्ययन में, यदि दवा की प्रतिक्रिया रोगी के आयु समूह के आधार पर भिन्न होती है, तो अंतःक्रियात्मक प्रभाव दिखाई देगा।
मान्यताएं/धारणाएँ (Assumptions): अन्य पैरामीट्रिक सांख्यिकीय परीक्षणों (parametric statistical tests) की तरह, टू-वे एनोवा कुछ मान्यताओं पर निर्भर करता है, जिसमें डेटा की सामान्यता (normality of data), समूहों में भिन्नताओं की एकरूपता (homogeneity of variances across groups) और प्रदत्तों की स्वतंत्रता (independence of observations) शामिल होती है। इन मान्यताओं का उल्लंघन परिणामों की वैधता (Validity) को सार्थक रूप से प्रभावित कर सकता है।
परिकल्पना (hypothesis): टू-वे एनोवा में शून्य परिकल्पना (Null hypothesis) बताती है कि दो कारकों के विभिन्न स्तरों या उनकी परस्पर क्रिया में आश्रित चर के साधनों में कोई महत्वपूर्ण अंतर नहीं है। वैकल्पिक परिकल्पना (alternative hypothesis) से पता चलता है कि इनमें से कम से कम एक साधन दूसरों से काफी भिन्न है।
स्वतंत्रता की डिग्री (degree of freedom): टू-वे एनोवा में स्वतंत्रता की डिग्री को प्रत्येक कारक के लिए स्वतंत्रता की डिग्री, उनकी अंतःक्रिया (interaction) और स्वतंत्रता की अवशिष्ट डिग्री (residual degree of freedom) का प्रतिनिधित्व करने वाले घटकों में विभाजित किया गया है।
वर्गों का योग (Sum of squares): टू-वे एनोवा में वर्गों के कुल योग को प्रत्येक कारक, उनकी परस्पर क्रिया और अवशिष्ट भिन्नता (residual variation) के कारण भिन्नता का प्रतिनिधित्व करने वाले घटकों में विभाजित किया गया है। वर्ग मानों (values of sum of squares) के इन योग का उपयोग एफ-सांख्यिकी (F-statistics) की गणना के लिए किया जाता है।
एफ-टेस्ट (F-Test): एफ-सांख्यिकी की गणना कारकों के माध्य वर्ग (mean square) या उनकी परस्पर क्रिया (interaction) को अवशेषों के माध्य वर्ग (residual mean sum of squares) से विभाजित करके की जाती है। यह एफ-परीक्षण यह निर्धारित करता है कि समूह के साधनों के बीच देखे गए अंतर सांख्यिकीय रूप से महत्वपूर्ण हैं या केवल संयोग के कारण हैं।
पोस्ट-हॉक टेस्ट (Post-hoc test): यदि समग्र एफ-परीक्षण महत्वपूर्ण परिणामों को इंगित करता है, तो Tucky's Honestly Significantly Different (एचएसडी) या बोनफेरोनी परीक्षणों जैसे पोस्ट-हॉक परीक्षण यह पहचानने के लिए किए जा सकते हैं कि कौन से विशिष्ट समूह एक-दूसरे से काफी भिन्न हैं।
व्याख्या: दो-तरफ़ा एनोवा परिणामों की व्याख्या में मुख्य प्रभावों और अंतःक्रिया प्रभावों के महत्व का आकलन करना शामिल होता है। इसमें यह समझना होता है कि प्रत्येक कारक स्वतंत्र रूप से आश्रित चर को कैसे प्रभावित करता है और जब कारक परस्पर क्रिया करते हैं तो क्या कोई संयुक्त प्रभाव होता है।
अनुप्रयोग: मनोविज्ञान, जीव विज्ञान, अर्थशास्त्र और समाजशास्त्र सहित विभिन्न क्षेत्रों में प्रयोगात्मक और अवलोकन अनुसंधान में टू-वे एनोवा का व्यापक रूप से उपयोग किया जाता है। यह शोधकर्ताओं को एक साथ दो कारकों के प्रभाव पर विचार करते हुए कई समूहों के बीच साधनों की तुलना करने की अनुमति देता है, जो जटिल संबंधों में मूल्यवान अंतर्दृष्टि प्रदान करता है।
**********
Two-Way ANOVA: An introduction
Two-Way ANOVA, also known as Two-Factor ANOVA, is a statistical technique used to analyze the influence of two categorical independent variables on a continuous dependent variable. It extends the principles of one-way ANOVA to situations where there are two independent variables or factors affecting the outcome.
Important Paradigms of Two-Way ANOVA
1. Factors - In Two-Way ANOVA, there are two factors or independent variables being studied. These factors can represent different treatments, conditions, or levels that participants or subjects are exposed to in an experiment.
Friday, April 5, 2024
Counseling with special cases: HIV/AIDS & Terminal Illnesses
HIV/AIDS and terminal illness
counselling is an active process of communication and dialogue between a trained
counsellor and the client who presents with problems related to HIV/AIDS or is
terminally and in a view to assist the client to deal with these problems
adequately and appropriately.
Broad Aims of
HIV/AIDS Counselling
1. Prevention of HIV transmission
Ø
Determining
whether the lifestyle of an individual places him or her at risk
Ø
Working
with an individual so that he or she understands the risks
Ø
Helping
to identify the meanings of high risk behaviour
Ø
Helping
to define the true potential for behaviour change
Ø
Working
with the individual to achieve and sustain behaviour change
2. Providing support to those affected
directly and indirectly by HIV.
Ø
Individual,
relationship, and family counselling to prevent and reduce psychological
morbidity associated with HIV infection and disease
Terminal
Illness
Terminal illness is used to describe
patients with advanced disease and a drastically reduced lifespan, with perhaps
months or weeks to live. Inevitably the range and
The
severity of physical symptoms will have increased, and will be having a
profound effect on how the patient lives his life.
Different
Psychological Responses to an HIV Positive Test Result.
Ø Shock - Recognition of mortality,
loss of hope for the future etc.
Ø Fear and anxiety - Lifelong
medication and treatment/treatment failure, isolation and abandonment and
social/sexual rejection, infecting others and being infected by them, partner’s
reaction etc.
Ø Depression - Adjustment to living
with a chronic viral condition, absence of a cure, limits imposed by possible
ill health, social, occupational, and sexual rejection if treatment fails etc.
Ø Anger and frustration - Adopt to new
and involuntary health/lifestyle restrictions, incorporating demanding drug
regimens, and possible side effects.
Ø Guilt is the result of interpreting
HIV as a punishment - for example, for being engaged in unprotected sex, using
drugs, and anxiety caused to the partner/family.
Best
Strategy to Deal with the Prevention of the Spread of HIV/AIDS
Behaviour
modification
Counselling
Suggestions to Counsellor of HIV/AIDs Patients
1. Counsellors should have deep knowledge
of HIV/AIDS (What it is, ways and means of spread, psycho-physio-socio
consequences of HIV infection and other relevant information.
2. Identify the cause of HIV/AIDS through
intensive and humane interaction with the patient.
3. Identify the present stage
[Asymptomatic, Symptomatic and End stage] in which the patient is.
4. Counsellor should clear all
misconceptions to the patient’s family members in the patient’s presence.
5. Open all communication channels with
patients regarding their conditions, and provide honest, factual information
about them.
6. Facilitate the expression of important
emotions and help patients learn to manage these emotions under the present
circumstances.
7. Initiate quality interaction between
patients and other significant people, such as family, friends, and medical
staff.
8. If possible, apply biofeedback and
self-hypnosis, which help control the distressing emotions of the patient.
9. Family therapy is one of the best tools
for HIV/AIDS, and terminally ill patients; it helps family members adjust to
the changes that the progression of a loved one’s illness has on the family
structure and dynamics. Hence, the counsellor is advised to apply it.
10. The counsellor should allow ventilation
of various feelings such as fear, anger, despair etc.
What
counsellor should know?
It is an organic fact that AIDS cannot be cured; the counsellor should
share coping strategies such as learning to live with the morbidity, adding
quality to life, extensive participation in discussion programs with
HIV-infected people, leaning towards spirituality, engaging in family and
social networks, use of technology to learn something new daily, use of
alternative therapies, strengthening self-control, self-suggestions through
constructive monologue, taking an active part in awareness campaigns, sharing
ordeal with fellow beings and narrative therapy, i.e. diary writing.
Counselling
Paradigms for Different Stages
Ø Asymptomatic stage - At this stage,
the counsellor must remember to treat the patient on food and nutrition,
support, and treatment with antiretroviral drugs prevention of onward
transmission.
Ø Symptomatic stage - At this stage,
the counsellor must remember to help the patient with the HIV-related
management of nutritional effects; treatment of HIV related infections, medical
care and psychological support.
Ø End of the life stage - In this
stage, the counsellor’s role is critical because the counsellor also helps the
patient and the family. As the patient and family are under depression and
grief. The counsellor should make the patient emotionally intense for the truth
(death) and prepare him for death by which he/she not only enables the family
to accept the fact of life and help the patient live the remaining life to the
fullest.
Common
Interventions
1. Help the client to learn healthy
communication and conflict resolution strategies (If you can solve a problem,
Why worry? Strategy).
2. Reduction of intensity and frequency of
expectations.
3. Identification of self-worth, focus on
growth, celebrate the success of growth, and move on.
4. Reframing perception (for example,
taking failure as an opportunity) helps in enhanced self-esteem and core
motivation.
Different
HIV Counselling Programs and Services
ü Counselling before the test is done
ü Counselling after the test for those
who are HIV positive and HIV negative
ü Risk reduction assessment to help
prevent transmission
ü Counselling after a diagnosis of HIV
disease has been made
ü Family and relationship counselling
ü Bereavement counselling
ü Telephone “hotline” counselling
ü Outreach counselling
ü Crisis intervention
ü Structured psychological support for
those affected by HIV
ü Support groups
Counseling with special cases: Physical and Sexual Abuse
Physical and
Sexual Abuse
(a) insults,
ridicule, humiliation, name calling and insults or ridicule specially with
regard to not having a child or a male child; and
(b) repeated threats
to cause physical pain to any person in whom the aggrieved person is
interested.
Sexual abuse - It includes any conduct of a
sexual nature that abuses, humiliates, degrades or otherwise violates the
dignity of a woman.
Consequences of
Physical and Sexual Abuse Clients
1. Occurrence of emotional and behavioural
issues relating to anxiety and depression.
2. Genital injuries and frequent urinary
tract infections.
3. Increased risk of drug and alcohol
abuse.
4. Trauma has a long-term detrimental
effect on the brain and heart.
5. Increased risk of eating disorders,
sexual dysfunction, self-harming, suicidal ideation and severe preoccupation
with physical appearance.
6. Flashbacks, guilt and nightmares.
7. Survivors become very expressive
(anger, sadness), disoriented (disbelief, denial), or controlled (distant,
calm).
Counselling
Physical and Sexual Abuse Clients
Counselling with special cases, such
as physical and sexual abuse, is a challenging experience. Counsellors who work
with these populations must be well-trained and experienced in trauma-informed
care. They must be able to create a safe and supportive environment for their
clients, and they must be able to help their clients process their experiences
and develop coping mechanisms.
Assessment
Prior to Psychological Interventions
It is important to
obtain a detailed history and assessment of the child, including information on
family and school context, developmental level and functionality, emotional and
behavioural issues (pre- and post-sexual abuse), circumstances of the alleged
abuse, the child's experience and understanding of the abuse and other related
problems.
Objective of
Assessment
The objective of the
Psychosocial and Mental Health Assessment is to establish that abuse has
occurred and to know the nature of abuse, i.e., contact versus non-contact,
penetrative versus non-penetrative abuse with a view to making decisions
regarding medical interventions, as well as posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) interventions, as necessary.
Introduction
and rapport building
During this phase, it is imperative
for counsellors to maintain a high level of empathy to create an environment of
acceptance and comfort. Many survivors of sexual assault struggle with feelings
of shame, guilt, embarrassment and defectiveness, and have a decreased level of
trust in others who are outside their identified support systems.
1. Greet the client and tell him/her your
name and then, ask his/her name
2. Engage in neutral conversation few
minutes for example what did you eat in the morning today? How did you come
here today? Who are these people who have come with you?
3. Introduce the space and the purpose of
the client being there, including your role.
4. Explain the need for a video camera/microphone
(in case you are using such equipment) – “As you can see, we have a video
camera and microphones here. They will record our conversation so I can
remember everything you tell me. Sometimes, I forget things and the recorder
allows me to listen to you without having to write everything down.” (In case
you are taking notes, you may provide a similar explanation to the client).
5. Encourage clients to provide detailed
responses early in the interview as this enhances their descriptive responses
to open-ended prompts in other parts of the interview, particularly those
related to the abuse incident. [It is very important that you tell me
everything you remember about things that have happened to you. You can tell me
both good things and bad things].
Abuse Enquiry
Now shift to substantive
issues to enable the client to provide you with the narrative by using open
questions such as:
“Now that I know a
little about you, I want to talk about why (you are here) today”
“I heard you
talked to “X” about something that happened – tell me what happened”
“I see you have (a
bruise, a broken arm, etc.,) – tell me what happened”
“I heard you saw
(the doctor, a policeman, etc.) last week – tell me how come/what you talked
about”
“I understand
someone might have troubled you – tell me what happened”
“I understand
someone may have done something that wasn’t right – tell me what happened”
“I understand
something may have happened at (location) – tell me what happened”
Psychological
Interventions (Counselling)
Cognitive
Interventions
1. Identify thought patterns that lead to
self-deprecating perceptions and triggering responses. Some of the cognitive
distortions that clients commonly reported are “I am damaged”; “I will never be
the same”; “I should have done something different”; “Nothing good ever happens
to me.”
2. Work toward positive and realistic
reframes while continuing to focus on developing coping skills.
3. Ask them to keenly observe their
thought pattern and remain aware of it as long as you can.
4. Once awareness is practiced, then
encourage the client to begin with slight modifications in their thought
patterns. The modification of thought patterns should not be sudden rather it
should be gradual. Sudden modification is likely to relapse.
5. Finally, ask the client to remain focused
on her new thought process. Engage yourself in it more often, combine it with
relaxation therapies [explain some relaxation therapies] and remain
self-motivated.
Psychological
Interventions (Counselling)
1. Gestalt interventions – These are primarily focused on
bodily sensations and re-experiencing physiological reactions. For this focus,
encourage clients to practice body scanning on a regular basis but especially
when experiencing more intense emotional reactions. The purpose is to have
clients become better acquainted with specific aspects of their emotional
functioning and the associated feelings linked to their bodies. This
intervention allows in-the-moment understanding of how certain emotions
manifest physiologically and encourages increased awareness of clients’
specific responses to emotions in triggering conditions.
2. Trauma narrative - Encourage survivors of sexual
assault to begin writing out their trauma narratives, which occurs in session.
Retelling their stories has been empirically proven to decrease the severity of
the trauma response. It also allows clients to apply new meaning to their
experiences and incorporate new and positive self-views and language. A client
may feel hesitant to write about painful experiences and consequently store
them. Ask her/him to write but if you don't like it then tear it away.
3. Art-based therapy – In this intervention technique the
survivor is encouraged to draw whatever you feel like to draw using different
colours. At the outset, the survivor may face cognitive resistance to do this
but gradually she/he may take up the job. This helps in the identification of
survivors thought process and perception. This can technique can also be used
during the assessment process. Art provides psychological ducts for expressing
without narrating. It helps in freeing the survivor from the guilt of
confession.
Common
Interventions
1. Help the client to learn healthy
communication and conflict resolution strategies (If you can solve a problem,
Why worry? Strategy).
2. Reduction of intensity and frequency of
expectations.
3. Identification of self-worth, focus on
growth, celebrate the success of growth, and move on.
4. Reframing perception (for example,
taking failure as an opportunity) helps in enhanced self-esteem and core
motivation.
*********
Counseling with special cases: Domestic violence
Domestic violence also known
as relationship abuse, intimate partner violence, domestic abuse, or battering
is the willful intimidation, physical assault, battery, sexual assault, and/or
other abusive behaviour as part of a systematic pattern of power and control
perpetrated by one intimate partner against another. It includes physical violence,
sexual violence, psychological violence, and emotional abuse. It is often
accompanied by emotionally abusive and controlling behaviour.
Domestic violence can also include
abuse by other members of the household, including parents, siblings,
relatives, or roommates
‘Domestic violence is not simply an
argument. It is a pattern of coercive controls that one person exercises over
another. Abusers use physical and sexual violence, threats, emotional insults
and economic deprivation as a way to dominate their victims and get their way’
(WHO, 2007).
Introduction:
Domestic Violence?
“Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power
relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination
against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women…”
states the United Nations Declaration on the elimination of Violence against
Women, General Assembly Resolution, December 1993.
Domestic violence is
a family problem affecting individuals in every community, regardless of age,
economic status, sexual orientation, gender, race, religion, or nationality. It
can result in physical injury, psychological trauma, and in severe cases, even
death.
Counselling of
Domestic Violence Victims?
Counselling is an important part of
the healing process for people who have been affected by domestic violence.
Counsellors provide support, guidance, and help to clients to develop coping
mechanisms. They help clients to understand the dynamics of domestic violence
and to make decisions about their future.
Counselling for domestic violence
individual is a typical task. It involves lots of patience, understanding,
empathy and the type, intensity and severity of domestic violence. The
counsellor should have sound knowledge of legal issues involved the domestic
violence.
There are many different types of
counselling available for domestic violence survivors. Some counsellors
specialize in working with women, while others work with men. Some counsellors
focus on individual counselling, while others offer group counselling or family
counselling.
Domestic Violence
Counselling Process
1. Assessment - The first step in the counselling process is
to assess the client's needs. This includes gathering information about the
client's history of domestic violence, their current situation, and their goals
for counselling.
2. Safety planning - Once the client's needs have been
assessed, the counsellor will work with the client to develop a safety plan.
This plan will outline steps that the client can take to protect themselves
from their abuser.
3. Emotional support and validation - The counsellor will provide the
client with support and guidance throughout the counselling process. This
support can take many forms, such as providing emotional support, helping the client
to develop coping mechanisms, and helping the client to make decisions about
their future. They help clients process their emotions, such as fear, guilt,
shame, and anger, and work towards rebuilding self-esteem and self-worth.
4. Psycho-education - The counsellor will also provide
the client with education about domestic violence. This education can help the
client to understand the dynamics of domestic violence and to develop a better
understanding of their own situation.
5. Coping strategies and empowerment - Counsellors assist clients in
developing healthy coping strategies to manage the emotional and psychological
impact of the abuse. This may include teaching relaxation techniques, stress
management strategies, assertiveness training, and boundary-setting skills.
Empowerment is emphasized to help clients regain control over their lives and
make informed decisions about their future.
6. Referrals - If the client needs additional services, the
counsellor will refer them to other resources, such as legal aid, housing
assistance, or job training.
7. Follow-up and aftercare - The counselling process typically
involves regular sessions, and counsellors may conduct follow-up assessments to
monitor progress and adjust the treatment plan if needed. Aftercare support is
essential to ensure that clients continue to receive the necessary assistance
and have access to ongoing support even after the counselling process
concludes.
Therapies for
Domestic Violence Counselling
According to Dr.
Sullivan
1. Individual counselling - It addresses a person’s unique
needs and on one to one settings. It recognizes that not everyone experiences
abuse in the same way, that the impact of abuse differs among individuals, and
what individuals need to move forward also varies.
2. Support group Counselling – This therapy focus on the shared
experiences domestic violence victims the knowledge that victim is not alone
provides a cognitive comfort. The shared understanding and sense of
universality among a group of peers can promote well-being.
3. Universal therapies such as yoga, meditation, and
mindfulness.
4. Creative arts therapies that involve artistic modes of
expression such as music, visual art, drama, dance, writing, poetry, or play.
5. Helping to overcome PTSD through empowerment (HOPE), a form
of therapy that aims to empower survivors who have developed PTSD due to
domestic violence.
6. Eye movement desensitisation and
reprocessing (EMDR)
and core motivation.
7. Help the client to learn healthy
communication and conflict resolution strategies (If you can solve a problem,
Why worry? Strategy).
8. Reduction of intensity and frequency of
expectations.
9. Identification of self-worth, focus on
growth, celebrate the success of growth, and move on.
10. Reframing perception (for example, taking
failure as an opportunity) helps in enhanced self-esteem and core motivation.
Probable Outcomes of Domestic Violence Counselling
- 1. Counselling helps in processing the trauma of domestic violence and to begin to heal.
- 2. Counselling helps in understanding the dynamics of domestic violence and to develop coping mechanisms.
- 3. Counselling helps in making decisions about the future, such as whether or not to leave the abuser.
- 4. Counselling helps in connecting with other survivors and to feel less alone.
- 5. Counselling provides a platform to realign the life with mainstream.
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