Methods of Psychology: Observation

Meaning and Definition

Meaning – Monitoring, perceiving and watching attentively and carefully.

Definition – A systematic and unbiased conscious process of gathering and recording required information.

Introduction

          The scientific observation is one of the data gathering device of psychological research. Observation is a conscious and selective process. It is guided by predefined objectives. The observed information is systematically recorded and tabulated. The recorded information is then subjected to rigorous analysis. The observation method of data collection is employed frequently in social science research. Interestingly every major inventions/discovery is the outcome of observation. It has its advantages and disadvantages too.

Scientific Observation

          The scientific observation differs from routine observation in which we engage on several grounds.

(i)       Observation of selective & pre-decided behaviour.

(ii)      Meticulous and systematic recording of information so collected.

(iii)     Appropriate analysis of recorded information with standard (reliable  and valid) tools.

(iv)     Arriving at an inference & interpretation of results in a language understood by common people.

Types of Observation

           Different types of scientific observations

(i)       Naturalistic Observation – The scientific observation done in real life situations or natural environment and those observed are unaware of being observed e.g. observing the people dance in a marriage function.

Advantages – The real time behaviour and complete situation can be studied in one go.

Disadvantages – The results are interspersed with the effect of various variables and have no control over the extraneous variables on the outcome. It is not feasible to observe all types of behaviour and may change with different observers. 

(ii)      Controlled Observation – Observation done in laboratory under controlled conditions e.g. classical conditioning experiment & Darley & Latane experiment.

Advantages – The effect of independent variables on the dependent variable can be scientifically established. Results can be easily replicated.

Disadvantages – The results of controlled observation lack external validity and participants become conscious of being observed.

(iii)     Participant Observation – When the observer becomes the active member of the group being observed. It is of two types:

          (a)      When group is aware that they are being          observed.

          (b)      When group is unaware that they are being      observed.

Advantages – The natural behaviour of the group can be observed and their deeper side can be revealed easily.

Disadvantages – The observation may suffer from experimenter bias and difficult to record observation in real time. It’s a labour intensive and time consuming activity.

(iv)     Non-participant observation – When observer is not the part of the group (Passive member) being observed i.e. observe without any interference or disturbance to the group.

Advantages – The experimenter has no influence over the behaviour of the participants and situation.

Disadvantages – Experimenter’s bias (Objectivity may suffer) may affect the results.

(v)      Structured or Systematic Observation – In structured observation a schedule of characteristics to be observed is prepared and observations are made strictly according to this schedule.

Advantages – Economical in time & efforts, objectivity in observation, relatively better reliability & validity.

Disadvantages – It is difficult to observe pin point characteristics. Cultural aspects may interfere with observation.

(vii)    Field observation – Observation that are carried out in the field (point of incidence) rather than in artificial settings (hospitals, classrooms etc.).

Advantages – Primary data can be collected from the scene without any external interference, provides opportunity to researcher to experience the real time situations.

Disadvantages –Time and labour intensive, limited sample with wide range of  heterogeneity. Ethical considerations regarding identity of group.

Biases in Observation

          A bias as an error in the design or execution of a study, which produces results that are systematically distorted (Ranstam, 2008). The following three types of biases may occur during observation. We do not see things as they are, but we see things as we want to see them.

(i)       Observer bias – It is also known as researcher bias or experimenter bias. The inclination to perceive what an observer expects or wants. It results from pre-conceived ideas, knowledge and information gathered from various sources concerning the group or individual to be observed.

(ii)      Cultural bias – The bias that occurs due to cultural bent of mind i.e. observing, interpreting and consequently judging things in the light of norms and standards of own culture.

(iii)     Information bias – The bias that occurs during the recording (by an instrument), recalling, reporting of information. It is also known as misclassification bias (Ranstam, 2008).

References:

1.       NCERT, XI Psychology Text book.

2.       http://www.elon.edu/docs/e-web/org/percs/observation.pdf.

3.       https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2780010/

4.       Ranstam, J. (2008) Bias in Observational Studies, Acta Radiologica,           49:6, 644-645 (https://doi.org/10.1080/02841850802075082).

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Methods of Psychology: Experimental

Method: Meaning and Definition

Meaning - A procedure or process for attaining an object or objective.

Definition - Method is a systematic process or procedure in order to deal with some issue.

What is an Experiment?

          A scientific procedure where independent variables are manipulated, extraneous variables are controlled in order to establish or test cause-&-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Cause – The event being changed or manipulated.

Effect – The behaviour that changes because of the manipulation (NCERT).

Major components of an Experiment

          Variables are the major components of an experiment where a researcher tries to establish cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.

Variable – Anything (attributes of which) which can vary or that can have different values and can be measured. For example intelligence, learning, motivation etc.

Major type of Variables

          Variables are of various types few of them are described below: -

          (i)       Independent Variables – Variables that are expected to cause some           significant effect/change in dependent variable.

          (ii)      Dependent Variables – Variables that are expected to be affected by           independent variables.

          E.g. - Research Statement

          “Does level of intelligence affects the academic achievement?

          In this case   

          IV – Intelligence

          DV – Academic Achievement

          (iii)     Extraneous Variables – The variables which are not being studies but     significantly influences the results. They are also called as ‘Plausible causes’.

          E.g. – Research statement “Memory significantly affects individual’s academic      achievements”. Here, the ‘intelligence’ is one of the extraneous variables which       can influence the results. 

          (iv)     Confounding Variables – Variables that influences IV & DV and           consequently produce unexpected outcomes.  

          E.g. – Research statement “Good opportunities ensures good academic           achievements”

          Here, ‘hard work’ on the part of the subject can effects availability of           opportunities (IV), academic achievements (DV) and results.

          (v)      Intervening/mediating Variables – The unseen variables that causes           the change in DV instead of IV.

          E.g. – Research statement “The intensity of light improves the academic           grades”

          Here, in fact the academic grades are influenced by ‘intelligence’           (Intervening/mediating variable) and other variables whereas researcher thinks           otherwise.

          (vi)     Organismic Variables – The biological characteristics of the subject           used for grouping are known as organismic variables.

          E.g. Research statement “Girls have high level of empathy”

          Here, ‘gender’ (girls) is the organismic variable.

          (vii)    Dummy Variables – A dichotomous variable that can take only two           values and represent categorical data. E.g. gender, residential status           (urban/rural), attitude towards life (Optimistic/pessimistic), binary numbers etc.

Minimum Requirements of a Scientific Experiment

          An experiment is said to be scientific when it fulfils the following conditions: -

(i)       Control of extraneous variables.

(ii)      Randomization in sampling, group formation and administration of intervention techniques.

(iii)     Homogeneity & representativeness of sample.

(iv)     Control of biases including Experimenter Expectancy Effect.

(v)      Pre-tested (through pilot study) experimental design.

Structure of an Experiment

          An experiment must have minimum one ‘Experimental group’ and one ‘Control group’.

(i)       Experimental Group – The group in which the subjects are exposed to manipulated IVs.

(ii)      Control Group – It’s a comparison group and treated and exposed to all similar conditions as experimental group except manipulated IVs. Various techniques are used to control the effect of extraneous variables on the dependent variable. These techniques help in filtering out the effects other than IV in other words it improving the purity of IV effect.

          (i)       Elimination of Extraneous Variables.

(ii)      Keeping Extraneous Variables constants (When elimination is not feasible).

(iii)     Matching (especially for Organismic (intelligence) and Background Variables (rural/urban or SES).

(iv)     Counter-balancing (to minimize the sequence effect).

(v)      Randomization.

Limitations of an Experiment

          Despite following highly scientific methodology, an experiment suffers from various following limitations.

1.       Most experiments are conducted in laboratory under controlled conditions therefore results of such experiments are difficult to generalize. They tend to suffer from External Validity.

2.       Due to the typical nature of problems they cannot be studied in the laboratory such as ‘flood’s immediate effect on cognitive abilities of the victims’.

3.       In some situations control and manipulation of variables is not possible especially in post hoc studies (PTSD related studies).

4.       In reality it is almost impossible to control all variables.

5.       Though it establishes cause-&-effect relationship but fails to explain ‘Why’ it occurred.

Reference:

1.       NCERT, Class XI Psychology Text book.

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प्रत्यक्षण की प्रकृति भाग - I I (Nature of Perception Part II)

An Objective Analysis of Chap 2 of Gita by Prof Rajbir Singh

Eng Nature of Perception Part II

प्रत्यक्षण की प्रकृति भाग - I Nature of Perception Part I

Nature of Perception Part I

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCTc6W-pByo